Risk-first: Kraken uses a maker‑taker fee model for forex/crypto spot; maker fees start around 0.16% (stablecoin/forex ~0.20%) and taker fees from 0.26% (stablecoin/forex ~0.20%), reducing to zero depending on monthly volume; Instant Buy/Convert services carry fixed fees (~0.9% for stablecoins, ~1.5% for cryptos), plus spreads which vary by volatility and order type